Reproductive performance is an important factor in determining profitability in the sheep flock. Most breeds of sheep have seasonal breeding patterns and the majority of flocks in Ohio are spring lambing.  In this scenario, the peak fertility of the ewe is from late September through November.  The breeding season will extend somewhat beyond peak fertility for the late spring lambing system and begin somewhat before peak fertility for the late winter lambing system.  Some management attention given to the ewes and rams prior to the breeding season can pay dividends in terms of increased conception and lambing rate.

A primary consideration regardless of the lambing production system and timing used is nutrition of the flock.  The nutritional status of the ewe and ram at breeding is probably the primary factor that influences reproductive performance.  The nutritional status of the flock is also a factor that a flock manager has a lot of control over.  Evaluation of the body condition of the ram and ewe before breeding can tell the manager whether nutrient consumption should be increased or decreased.  Based on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being very thin and 5 being fat, the goal should be to have the ram and ewe enter the breeding season somewhere around a 3.5 body condition score.

One practice that is helpful with ewes that are below the target body condition score is to provide them with a diet high in energy that allows them to gain weight.  This practice is termed flushing and should be done 2 to 4 weeks before breeding.  The high energy diet can be provided by supplementing a high energy grain such as corn at a rate of one-half to one pound per ewe per day, or by providing a high quality pasture. Flushing can result in an increased lambing rate and a decreased number of open ewes.

One caution that is generally given if ewes are to be flushed using a high quality pasture is to keep them off pastures with a high content of legumes (clovers and alfalfa) and use grass pastures.  The reason given is that these legumes contain estrogen that leads to infertility and decreases the conception rate and pregnancy of the ewes.  Does this caution mean that ewes must graze pure grass pastures? Legumes typically help to boost the energy content of a pasture sward and generally are considered as a positive to improve pasture quality. What does high content of legumes mean?

Clovers and alfalfa contain compounds known as phytoestrogens.  In clover species the specific compounds are isoflavones.  These isoflavones exhibit estrogen like behavior in sheep, while cattle do not seem to be affected by them to the same degree.  I reviewed some of the scientific literature about this topic and it appears that sheep are more susceptible to the effects of isoflavones because as they are metabolized in cattle they are rapidly excreted in the urine, whereas in sheep they are not rapidly excreted and remain in their system longer.  In addition, the estrogen receptors in sheep appear to be more sensitive to these compounds as compared to cattle.

There are also other factors that influence the level or concentration of phytoestrogens in legumes.  The specific variety is one such factor.  Improved cultivars have been found to have lower phytoestrogen contents.  Environmental factors such as drought can increase the phytoestrogen content.  Finally, soil phosphorus levels can influence the amount of phytoestrogens in legumes.  Legumes grown in soil phosphorus deficient conditions have contained higher phytoestrogen concentrations as compared to legumes grown in non-deficient soil phosphorus conditions.

Still, the question remains, what is considered a high level of legumes with regard to this condition?  In the literature that I reviewed, the legume stands that produced a negative effect upon reproductive performance were either pure stands or predominantly legume stands.  I had a sheep farmer raise this question with me back in 2008 as he wondered about including clover in a grass pasture.  I wrote an email to Dr. Shulaw asking him about this issue.  He sent me some of the literature that I reviewed and summarized in this article and he also wrote, in part, “At this point in time, unless ewes are grazing pure stands of clover near breeding season I don’t have much evidence to make me concerned about infertility.”  As I am out and about on sheep farms and looking at pastures it is rare that I ever see a pasture that contains more than 35 to 40% clover.  The bottom line is that unless you have a pasture that is well over 50% clover, it should be fine to use in a flushing pass before the breeding season.

Some attention should also be given to the ram(s).  In addition to making sure that they are in good body condition, it is recommended that a breeding soundness exam (BSE) be conducted prior to breeding season.  The BSE consists of a physical examination, a reproductive tract examination and a semen evaluation.  Waiting until after the breeding season to discover a problem with your ram that shows up in the form of an extended lambing season or open ewes is costly.  Contact your veterinarian to schedule a BSE.  It is money well spent.

Finally, I need to close with a word about internal parasites.  One practice that use to be recommended was to deworm all the ewes and rams in the flock before the breeding season.  This practice is no longer recommended due to the resistance that parasites have developed to chemical dewormers.  Deworming all ewes and rams at one time is a method that will select for resistance.  Instead, deworm with a chemical dewormer based upon individual animal need.  This can be determined by using the FAMACHA eyelid color scoring system.  Those animals scoring a 3 or higher on this 1 to 5 scale should be dewormed with a chemical dewormer.  Animals scoring a 1 or a 2 should not be dosed with a chemical dewormer.  For more information about parasite control and use of the FAMACHA system, contact a member of the OSU Sheep Team.

The breeding season is upon the majority of flock owners in Ohio.  Some pro-active management action can insure that it is a successful and profitable breeding season.

Most know that for the past seven years, we’ve spent much time in Fairfield County investigating the virtues of oats as an annual forage when they are planted during mid to late summer, or even into early fall. While we’ve harvested from 2 to 5 tons, and consistently realized average yields of 3+ tons of dry matter from oats planted in July and August after a harvested wheat crop, it’s also apparent that yield and quality can vary greatly as planting date, nitrogen fertilization, and perhaps even oat varieties differ from each field planted.

For those looking to grow a cost-effective alternative forage crop yet this summer, and who have wheat stubble available, we offer these observations and recommendations based on experiences since 2002:

Optimum planting date for oats from the perspective of yield is the first week of August. Early August plantings also result in the highest total amount of TDN produced per acre. Later plantings will be slightly higher in quality, but not enough to offset the yield advantage of early August planting. While being more conducive to a mechanical harvest in early Fall, planting in early July reduces both yield and quality. The earlier oat plantings also exhibit more susceptibility to rust.

Regardless the planting date, or variety, no-tilled seeding rates of from 80 to 100 pounds of oats have consistently resulted in optimum forage yields.

Optimum nitrogen application rate is 40 to 50 pounds per acre. This application not only produces the highest yields, but at current values of nitrogen, it’s also the most cost effective rate. Higher rates of nitrogen actually appear to depress yields based on our 2008 plot results.

Bin run oats originating in Canada out perform, but possess similar quality at harvest as certified Armor oats.

The optimum combination of productivity and quality of August planted oats arrives 60 to 75 days after planting. Oats planted in July mature more quickly and thus, rapidly decline in quality beginning 50 to 60 days after planting.

Oats harvested 50-60 days after planting and while still in the boot stage of maturity will offer regrowth that may be grazed or sometimes even mechanically harvested a second time.

A weed control application of glyphosate is a necessary and cost effective practice prior to oat planting.

An additional advantage observed when using oats for an annual forage crop is the opportunity to capture the total tonnage produced with a single harvest cutting if grazing is not an option. It’s also important to note that the 3+ ton yields resulting from oats planted in early August after wheat and straw harvest, which have been experienced consistently in Fairfield County, exceed the average yields of the perennial hay crops produced in Fairfield County and also Ohio, on average, over the same time period.
If you’ve yet to attend any of our field days to see for yourself the results of summer seeded oats, this web link has photos and data of several of the past years’ efforts at the alternatives described above: http://beef.osu.edu/beef/graze/wntrgraz.htm.

In Ohio it is possible to graze year round. Of course grazing in winter does take planning. Summer is the best time to plan for fall and winter grazing. Why? Because many of our options have tasks associated with them in summer. By planning ahead it is possible in Ohio to have adequate quality, grazable forage for most of the winter. Depending on the class of livestock and their stage of production it is possible to need to feed for weeks in winter as opposed to months.

The cheapest option for fall grazing is crop residue, specifically corn residue. Corn residue can be an excellent grazable feed for about sixty days after the combine leaves the field. Fence and water are usually the biggest challenge to utilizing this feed resource. The variety of temporary fence and water options available can overcome that challenge. Grazing corn residue in fall can also take pressure off of your pasture fields and allow you to stockpile more forage for winter grazing. Check out the Factsheet “Grazing Corn Residue”, ANR 10-02, http://ohioline.osu.edu/anr-fact/0010.html for more information.

Stockpiling tall fescue is a relatively inexpensive option and can be done with existing pastures. To start stockpiling make the last clip or grazing anytime from the end of July through September. Generally, the earlier start the more you will have, but the lower the quality. The opposite is also true: the later you start, the higher the quality, but lower yield. After the last cut/graze add 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre. The addition of the nitrogen will add from 1000-2000 pounds of forage. If you have a large amount of clover, over 40%, then research shows little additional response to N applications for stockpiling.

After applying the nitrogen then delay grazing those fields until November through February. Quality will start to decline after Thanksgiving, but it is a slow decline. Usually the quality of stockpiled tall fescue will be still good enough for a ewe in good condition into February. Check out the Factsheet “Stockpiling Tall Fescue for Winter Grazing”, AGF-023 http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0023.html for more information.

Orchardgrass can also be stockpiled. Research conducted at OARDC Jackson Branch showed that orchardgrass will have protein around 12% into February. Orchardgrass will weather rapidly after prolonged cold temperatures, so yields will be reduced the longer you wait to graze.

Brassicas are also options to extend the grazing season. Turnips are the most common brassica used in Ohio. Turnips can be planted from mid July through early August. Most cultivars will reach maximum yield in 90 days. To get a good crop of turnips, you need two pounds of seed and fifty pounds of nitrogen per acre. Either no-till or conventional seeding will work. The hardest part is the low seeding rate and a small seed. Mixing the seed with the fertilizer helps. Tops and bulbs can both be grazed, with the tops being the higher quality feed component. Brassicas are very low in fiber, feed low quality hay to help slow its passage through your livestock. The crop should remain available to livestock until temperatures fall below 15 degrees. Check out the Factsheet “Brassicas for Forage”, AGF-020-92 http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0020.html for more information.

Winter rye is an option that can produce a high quality crop for grazing in December and March. It is very high in quality and will be the first to green up in the spring. This is a good option for livestock with high nutritional needs. For early spring grazing do not over-graze rye in December. Winter rye can be planted from the middle of August through the middle of September at 90-100 pounds of seed per acre. When rye is 2-4 inches tall, 50-75 pounds of nitrogen will stimulate growth and additional applications in early March will increase production. Check out the Factsheet “Winter Rye for Extending the Grazing Season”, AGF-026-00 http://ohioline.osu.edu/agf-fact/0026.html for more information.

Spring oats planted from July through September will grow more feed in the fall than winter rye but won’t have the spring growth. Optimum planting is the first week of August and you can grow an average of 6,000 pounds of dry matter per acre. Plant bin run oats originating in Canada at a rate of 80 to 100 pounds per acre. Fifty pounds of nitrogen will be beneficial. Like stockpiling tall fescue earlier planting will increase yield but quality will be lower than a later planting. The next article in this newsletter dives deeper into this option.

Standing corn can also be a viable option for winter grazing. Yes, in Ohio most people would consider this crazy. The profile of the plant and the fact that a lot of its nutritional quality will be in the grain make it an attractive option. It will be less likely to be ungrazable because of excessive snow and or ice. Of course you will need to get your ewes started on grain before grazing this crop. Research at OARDC has shown an acre of standing corn can feed 20 ewes for 70 days. Check out the Factsheet “Using Corn for Livestock Grazing”, ANR-11-02 http://ohioline.osu.edu/anr-fact/0011.html for more information.

For all of these forages the grazing management needs to include strip grazing. Strip grazing or limiting access with temporary fencing will increase utilization of the crop and decrease the amount wasted.

As a supplement to the OSU Extension fact sheets mentioned above there is also a new publication “Extending Grazing and Reducing Stored Feed Needs”, a Grazing Lands Conservation Initiative Publication 8-01, available at http://forages.osu.edu/Library/ExtendingGrazing.pdf . All of the above resources are also available from your local OSU Extension offices.

Fall is one of the most crucial time periods for our cool season pastures. The most important activity a livestock producer should be doing to help the pastures survive winter and remain productive next year is to avoid over-grazing.

Why is fall a critical time for our cool season perennial forages? The grass plants in your pasture are perennial plants. They survive from year to year. One way perennial plants survive is to develop buds located at the crown of the plant and store energy in the form of carbohydrates to be used by those buds when they start growing.

Leaf tissue that grows in the fall will die over winter. Next years growth comes from the buds developed the previous fall. The buds and roots of the plant are the parts that remain as living tissues over the winter. While not growing they are respiring and burning energy. If carbohydrate reserves are not adequate then the plant can die before spring. If the plant survives but carbohydrate reserves are low, then initial spring growth is slow and the overall vigor of the plant is reduced.

In the fall, we have short day, long night periods with temperatures above freezing to about 70 degrees F. It is that combination that triggers buds to be initiated and formed on the crown of the plant. In the cooler temperatures leaf growth is slower while photosynthesis does not slow down. This increases the reserve carbohydrates in the plant, which is then used for bud and root development. In the spring new growth comes from these buds. Initial spring growth draws upon carbohydrate reserves stored in the roots and or crowns of the plants. Those buds and stored carbohydrates start next year’s growth.

Healthy leaf tissue is needed for this to happen. Overgrazing removes too much leaf tissue. A grass plant with too little leaf area after grazing has to use carbohydrate reserves from the roots to re-grow. If the plant does not grow enough leaf tissue to gain carbohydrates before it is grazed again then the plant will continue to deplete its carbohydrate reserves. In fall the growing season will eventually come to an end and the plant will not have a chance to recover. Plants struggling to grow leaves will not develop buds. Overgrazed pastures that go into the winter with low carbohydrate reserves are very slow to green up in the spring and exhibit slow growth rates once they do green up.

Overgrazing is not caused by having too many animals in a field. It occurs when you keep animals in a field too long or bring the animals back before the forages have recovered. The length of time is determined by plant growth and how much is there at the start of grazing. The animals should be removed before plants they initially grazed start to re-grow. They also should be removed before they eat all of the leaves. Viable leaves need to remain after the plants are grazed. Plants should also be given enough rest between grazing events. This will allow enough leaf area to be re-grown before the animals are allowed to graze that field again.

Overgrazing can be avoided by paying attention to forage residual, grazing time and rest. You should leave at least 1200-1500 lbs. of DM per acre or 2-3″ of green forage when you pull animals from a field. You should remove the animals before the forage starts to re-grow. The pasture should recover to above 2400 lbs. of DM acre or 6-8″ before turning the animals into a field.

July – September are critical times to closely monitor the internal parasite burden of lambs and kids. Preferably monitoring would start in June. The internal parasite of principal concern during the summer months is Haemonchus contortus, the barber pole worm. Lambs and kids grazing on pastures that are contaminated with large numbers of infective Haemonchus contortus larvae can go downhill very rapidly in July and August. It would not be uncommon that within a 7 to 10 day period a lamb or kid could go from a perky animal with energy to bounce around a pasture to an animal that is on the threshold of death, lethargic and with little energy to move about. Unless an effective rescue treatment is applied at this stage, the chance of survival is very low.

I sometimes hear sheep and goat owners say that parasites are not a concern to them because they are using rotational grazing or because they have an effective chemical deworming schedule. Neither of these strategies is going to totally prevent high worm burdens from accumulating or do away with the need to monitor lambs and kids during the critical July – September period.

Although rotational grazing is a good strategy to manage pasture health and provide quality forage, it does not prevent Haemonchus contortus from building up to very high levels on pasture. Let’s do a brief review of the life cycle of the worm during the grazing season. Adult worms attached to the stomach of an infected animal lay eggs that are passed in the animal’s feces. Under the favorable temperature and moisture conditions that exist in most summer pastures, eggs hatch to the infective larval stage in 4-7 days. Newly hatched larvae remain near the fecal pellet and pass through 3 stages of larval development termed L1, L2 and L3. The L3 stage is termed the infective stage because this larva will climb up blades of grass and wait to be ingested by grazing animals. Once the L3 stage has been ingested, it molts into an L4 larva stage and then molts in to an immature adult. When adults reach about 14 days of age in the stomach of the infected animal, they begin laying eggs. The entire life cycle from egg to egg can occur in as little as 24-25 days.

In a recent conversation with Dr. Shulaw, an OSU Extension Veterinarian who has considerable experience working with this problem of internal parasites, I asked about the life span of an infective Haemonchus contortus larva on pasture. Dr. Shulaw replied that L3 larvae can live up to 90 days on summer pastures given our climate and general pasture conditions. So, within the grazing season if a pasture is being re-grazed within that time frame and assuming our ewes and does were shedding Haemonchus contortus eggs in their feces on the first grazing pass, then those larvae are there waiting to be consumed in subsequent grazing passes. Since a mature female Haemonchus contortus worm can lay up to 5000 eggs/day, it does not take long for a pasture to accumulate very high levels of infective L3 larvae.

Depending upon chemical de-wormers and a regular deworming schedule is, at best, a short term fix. By now, sheep and goat owners who are serious about long-term production know that chemical resistance is an issue and that there is documented parasite resistance to all classes of currently available chemical dewormers. No chemical dewormer is 100% effective. Used repeatedly over time, the chemical will loose its effectiveness as the percentage of worms resistant to the chemical increase in the worm population on the farm. It’s important to understand that every time a chemical de-wormer is used, there is some selection for resistant worms. Deworming every animal in the flock or herd on a regular schedule is a formula for developing a resistant worm population and chemical failure. Selective deworming of only those individuals that really need some help will help to sustain the effectiveness of a chemical dewormer. That brings us back to the opening statement that animals need to be monitored.

How should lambs/kids be monitored during this critical period? There are two main tools that livestock owners can use; the FAMACHA eyelid score system and fecal egg counts. Both require time and regular application to be effective. Since few producers have the time, expertise and equipment to do fecal egg counts, they will have to depend upon their local veterinarian. The local vet may not have the time and/or staff to get fecal egg counts done in a timely and consistent manner and producers may not want to fork over $10 to $15 per fecal egg count test. That leaves the FAMACHA system.

The FAMACHA eyelid color score system uses a scale of 1-5 to grade eyelid color. The color of the lower eyelid is correlated with anemia caused by Haemonchus contortus burden within the animal. A chart with eyelid color and scores is matched to the live animal’s eyelid color. A bright red color score of 1or 2 indicates low levels of anemia and pale pink to white (scores 3-5) increasing levels of anemia. Generally an animal scoring a 3 or higher would be treated with an effective chemical dewormer. The value of the FAMACHA system is that it allows animals that are most affected by Haemonchus contortus to be identified and selectively treated without using a chemical dewormer on the entire herd/flock.

The most effective use of the FAMACHA system is consistent, regular application. During the critical July- September period, this means checking lamb/kid eyelids every 7 to 10 days. Keep track of scores for individual animals and use this as a record to notice trends that are developing. This is advice that was learned the hard way and here’s the story.

In 2008, I was involved in a small on-farm research project examining early weaning and pasture management to try to control Haemonchus contortus infection levels in lambs. Lambs were FAMACHA scored on a regular basis beginning in May. Towards the end of June over 90% of the lambs were scoring a 1 or a 2 and I thought parasites might not be a big issue. Then, doing FAMACHA scoring on July 8, over 40% of the lambs had to be treated with a chemical dewormer based on FAMACHA scores and backed up by high fecal egg counts. How did the situation change so quickly?

Ever notice how once something goes wrong you have time to go back and correct the mistake or take the time to think through what led to the error? We went back and looked at the FAMACHA scores and Dr. Shulaw did an analysis of FAMACHA percentages over time in the study. Here are some of the results: May 5: 77% of the lambs scored a 1, 23% scored a 2. June 5: 36% of the lambs scored a 1, 64% scored a 2. June 23: 29% scored a 1, 65% scored a 2, 5% scored a 3 and 2% scored a 4. July 8: 9% scored a 1, 42% scored a 2, 42% scored a 3, 5% scored a 4 and 2% scored a 5. Notice the trend toward higher scores over time. The distribution of FAMACHA scores was changing. Once the scores were looked at from this perspective, it was clear that lambs did not go downhill as suddenly as we perceived. The information was there, and a warning bell was sounding. The FAMACHA system can be used as an early warning system, but only if it is used regularly, records are kept and then those records are looked at for trends after each scoring of lambs/kids.

The last point I need to make in this article is that a farm needs an effective chemical dewormer to serve as a rescue option. How do you know if your chemical dewormer is effective or if resistance is developing? One way is by examining worm egg counts in the manure of treated animals, but this involves sampling relatively large groups and having your veterinarian do quantitative egg counts. Another way involves collecting some representative fecal samples and then exposing the eggs to the various chemical dewormers. One such assay is called the DrenchRite assay and is performed by a lab at the University of Georgia. The cost of this test is about $400, but resistance to all three chemical dewormers is evaluated on one composite sample. This makes this method very attractive for small flock/herd owners, and the assay results are available in about three weeks.

Beginning in June, but especially in the July-September period, is a critical time to monitor lambs and kids for internal worm burdens. Livestock owners need to recognize that early season pasture management will have an effect on parasite burdens. If lambs and kids can’t be moved to a safe pasture or feedlot system, then monitoring by use of the FAMACHA system, combined with an effective chemical dewormer, can help to reduce lamb/kid mortality.

For more information about the FAMACHA system or management of internal parasites, contact a member of the OSU Extension Sheep Team. Additional information about worm control and pasture management is also available on the Extension Sheep Team website at www.sheep.osu.edu .

It is amazing that graziers say their focus is on the forage but they don’t measure it.
Most graziers use measurements related to animal production, like the reading from the bulk tank or the weight of animals on the auction sale receipt. These are good items to keep track of because they relate directly to income but they are not timely enough to help graziers make grazing decisions in their operations.

Measuring and recording the forage performance can be useful in making several grazing decisions. Of course the measurements you take should be in the context of the objectives and goals of your operation. Taking measurements just as an exercise makes no sense. Taking measurements that relate back to your objectives and goals can help you monitor progress and improve your operation.

There are lots of ways to measure forage such as, pasture sticks, falling plate meters, rising plate meters, electric pasture probes, and even the tedious method of cutting. With little expense, graziers can consistently determine how much forage is available by simply walking their paddocks.

One problem with measuring forage is that it is a dynamic, living community of plants that is highly variable. To overcome the variability, many samples must be taken in order to accurately estimate how much forage is there. This can be time consuming and tedious. Usually 20-30 samples are recommended per pasture or paddock. The second problem is that the amount of forage available is always changing; animals are consuming leaves and plants are growing. To account for this constant change, measurements need to be taken on a regular basis, usually every seven to ten days.

The most accurate method used to determine the amount of forage available is cutting. Cutting is simply to take a known area, usually a one or two foot square, cut all of the forage in that area, dry it down completely, weigh the sample and convert it to pounds of dry matter per acre. Taking samples in this manner does take time. Most people use it to calibrate some other faster method of measurement. In managing your operation, accuracy is not as important as consistency. Faster methods can give consistent and fairly accurate results.

The easiest measurement of forage we can do is height. There seems to be some common confusion about using plant height to measure forage. Do livestock eat inches of forage or do they eat pounds of forage? Actually they eat pounds. To make it simpler, we take water out of the equation and say pounds of dry matter. Since the primary function of forage is to be used as feed, then converting its measurement into feed terms makes sense.

Two factsheets from West Virginia University; A Falling Plate Meter for Estimating Pasture Forage Mass and Estimating Pasture Forage Mass from Pasture Height are good references for graziers on measuring forages. Rayburn & Lozier do a good job of discussing using a ruler, a falling plate meter and a rising plate meter. (http://www.caf.wvu.edu/~forage/foragelstcenter.htm) Any of those tools could easily give you consistent information that is accurate enough to use in your management.

If you make time to determine average pounds of dry matter per acre for each paddock once a week, it would reward you with huge dividends. It will tell you how much forage you have in each paddock, which in itself is useful information. You will quickly see which paddocks need to be grazed next. If growth has stopped, you can quickly calculate how many days of forage you have left to graze.

Doing it on a weekly basis also allows you to calculate more useful information. Two consecutive weekly measurements can be used to calculate how fast the forage is growing. You can determine if you to a need to change your management because growth has either increased or decreased. Looking at a years worth of data you could calculate how much forage you actually grew and if you can carry more animals. It can help you identify the top yielding paddocks and the lowest yielding paddocks. You can determine ways to make the lower yielding paddocks produce more. Using measurements next year will help you determine if what you tried actually worked.

Measuring pastures and using the data is not the most exciting topic in grazing management. But it is one of that will make you effective in your management.

The 2009 Appalachian Grazing Conference will be held at the Lakeview Resort in Morgantown, West Virginia on March 6&7. For more information and registration details, log onto http://www.wvca.us/grazing_conference.

Log on and get registered soon as the reduced lodging rate of only $76.00/single occupancy coupled with the conference registration of $75.00 is only available until February 2.

This O.S.U. Extension Coordinated Program is an effort to provide outreach programs in several areas of sheep production. We invite sheep and goat producers from around Ohio to come to one or more of the educational sessions to learn more about different areas of sheep and goat production.

Programs Sponsored by: Ohio Sheep Improvement Association, Roger A. High, Executive Director, contact (614) 246-8299 or rhigh@ofbf.org or visit our website at www.ohiosheep.org for more information. Contact Extension Educators for possible meeting fees.

When, Where and What?

Wednesday, January 14, 2009 “Mt. Victory Program”
Location: Mt. Victory Plaza Inn, Mt. Victory, OH
Time: 6:00 p.m. – PAID RESERVATION IS REQUIRED FOR MEAL
7:00 p.m. – Program begins
Registration for meal: $15.00/person: Paid Registration due by: January 5, 2009
Speaker: Bob Hendershot, USDA/NCRS Grazing Specialist, “Pasture Management”
Contact: Wesley Haun, Logan County Extension Educator at (937) 599-4227

Tuesday, January 27, 2009 “Springfield Program”
Location: Clark County Extension Office, 4400 Gateway Blvd., Suite 104, Springfield, OH
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speaker: David O’Diam, OSU Meat Lab Manager, “Lamb and Goat Carcass Evaluation”
Contact: Jonah Johnson, Clark County Extension Educator at (937) 328-4607 or
Tim Fine, Miami County Extension Program Assistant at (937) 440-3945

Monday, February 9, 2009 “Burton Program”
Location: Geauga County Extension Office – Patterson Center, 14269 Claridon-Troy Rd, Burton, OH
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speaker: Roger A. High, OSU Sheep Extension Specialist, “The Management Continuum”
Contact: Les Ober, Geauga County Program Assistant, (440) 834-4656

February 25, 2009 “Bryan Program”
Location: Williams County Extension Office -
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speaker: Dr. Bill Shulaw, OSU Preventive Veterinarian, Beef and Sheep, “Internal Parasite Management”
Contact: Flo Chirra, Williams County Extension Educator at (419) 636-5608

Wednesday, March 4, 2009 “Fostoria Program”
Location: Ag Credit Services Corporate Office, 610 West Lytle St., Fostoria, OH
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speaker: Dr. Steve Loerch, OARDC Ruminant Nutritionist”, “Ruminant Nutritional Programs utilizing Dried Distiller’s Grain’s (DDG’s)”
Contact: Ed Lentz, Seneca County Extension Educator, (419) 447-9722 or Gary Wilson, Hancock County Extension Educator, (419) 422-3851

Monday, March 16, 2009 “Licking/Muskingum Program”
Location: Licking Valley High School, Haynesview Drive, Hanover, OH
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speakers: Roger A. High, OSU Sheep Extension Specialist, “What Market are You Breeding For?”
Katherine Harrison, General Manager, Blystone Farms, “Marketing to the Ethnic Population”
Contact: Howard Siegrist, Licking County Extension Educator, (740) 349-6900 or
Mark Mechling, Muskingum County Extension Educator, (740) 454-0144

Thursday, March 19, 2009 “Barnsville Program”
Location: “New” Farm Bureau Building, 100 Colonel Dr., Barnsville, OH
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speaker: Roger A. High, OSU Sheep Extension Specialist, “Sheep Nutrition”
Contact: Steve Schumacher, Belmont Co. Extension Educator, (740) 695-1455 or
Mark Landefeld, Monroe County Extension Educator, (740) 472-0810

Wednesday, March 25, 2009 “Lisbon Program”
Location: Crestview Local School, 44100 Crestview Rd. , Columbiana, OH
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speaker: Roger A. High, OSU Sheep Extension Specialist, “Lamb and Goat Quality Assurance”
Contact: Julie Herron, Columbiana County Extension Educator, (330) 424-7291

UNKNOWN DATE AT THIS TIME! 2009 “Bryan Program”
Location: Unknown at time of release – More details later
Time: 7:00 p.m.
Speaker: Dr. Bill Shulaw, OSU Preventive Veterinarian, Beef and Sheep, “Internal Parasite Management”
Contact: Flo Chirra, Williams County Extension Educator at (419) 636-5608

We are setting these programs up as “district” programs to reach as many sheep and goat producers around the state of Ohio as possible. We encourage you to come and to get your sheep and goat production questions answered.

The starvation/hypothermia complex usually comes about when multiple contributing factors are present and not just the simple occurrence of cold weather. Some of these include failure of the ewe to care for the lamb, difficult birth resulting in a weak lamb, bacterial mastitis in the ewe, “hard bag” in the ewe caused by ovine progressive pneumonia virus, and several infectious causes of abortions which also may result in live, but weak, lambs. Most producers will be confronted with the occasional hypothermic lamb.

A comprehensive source of information about problems occurring around lambing time is the Sheep Production Handbook published by the American Sheep Industry Association. The following is from the current edition of the Handbook:

“Rectal temperature is the primary guide to identification and treatment of hypothermia in lambs. Mild to moderate hypothermia is characterized by a body temperature between 37° and 39°C (98° and 102°F); severe hypothermia occurs when the body temperature is below 37°C (<98°F). Hypothermia is caused by excessive body heat loss coupled with reduced heat production. Newborn lambs are unable to regulate their body temperature for the first 36 hours after birth so environment and management practices greatly affect how much body heat newborn lambs may lose. Energy from body fat, colostrum, and milk is required by lambs to generate heat. Starvation depletes stored energy sources quickly and precludes the intake of adequate amounts of high energy nutrients. Common, but not necessarily routine, findings on necropsy that suggest starvation include: the absence of milk in the stomach and intestine, a change in the color and consistency of fat around the kidneys from light tan and firm to purple and gelatinous, and a complete absence of fat in the abdomen.”

There are multiple approaches to treatment of lambs that are hypothermic. Again quoting from the Sheep Production Handbook :

“Hypothermic lambs do not get better without assistance. For treatment of hypothermia, the following steps are recommended:
1. Move ewe and lambs to shelter or, if the hypothermia is severe, remove lambs from the ewe.
2. PRIOR TO WARMING, lambs more than five hours old with severe hypothermia (< 37°C, 98°F) should be given an intraperitoneal injection of a warm 20 percent dextrose (glucose) solution at a dose of four to five milliliters per pound of body weight. The injection can be given by the following procedure: (1) hold the lamb by the back legs in a hanging position, (2) disinfect the injection site that is located one inch either side and one inch behind the navel, (3) slowly insert a 20-gauge, one inch sterile needle, with the syringe containing the dextrose attached, into the abdomen, and 4) direct the injection toward the rump.
3. Towel-dry wet lambs. Supplement with heat or warm in a warming box using dry heat, e.g., a hand-held hair dryer or heat lamp. Temperature in the box should not exceed 103°F. Avoid overheating lambs by affixing a thermometer to the inside of the box and checking the lambs and the box thermometer regularly, at least every 30 minutes. Lambs should be warmed to 99°F.
4. Tube feed colostrum at the rate of 20 to 25 milliliters per pound of body weight per feeding after the lamb has been warmed (30 milliliters is approximately equal to one fluid ounce). Lambs unable to nurse on their own should receive this amount of colostrum by stomach tube three to four times during the first day of life.
5. Return the lambs to the ewe when rectal temperature is normal (usually one to three hours), and they can stand and nurse on their own. If lambs are still weak after treatment, they should be fed regularly by stomach tube until they are strong enough to join their mother.
6. If only one of a set of twin lambs is involved, remove both lambs from the ewe while warming is taking place and return both lambs simultaneously. Observe lambs frequently to check for relapses.”

Your veterinarian should instruct you in the technique of intraperitoneal injection and can provide you with sterile glucose solution. If you find yourself unprepared, tube feeding the lamb a warm (1020 F.) corn syrup solution (like Karo®) may be helpful. Two ounces of a 50:50 mix of corn syrup and warm water through a stomach tube will provide both heat and readily available glucose to a cold lamb. This can be repeated hourly or so if the lamb appears to be responding.

Moderately hypothermic lambs may respond to warming them and tube feeding with milk or colostrum. If the ewe has no milk and you can’t get milk from another ewe, milk from your refrigerator that has been warmed to body temperature can be substituted safely.

Much has been written about colostrum and its importance to the health of newborn mammals. Again from Sheep Production Handbook:

“Many infectious diseases occurring in the first few days of life occur because the lamb did not get enough colostrum during the first 12 hours after birth. The newborn lamb, unlike the human baby, is born without protective proteins, called antibodies, in the blood. Antibodies are necessary to protect the lamb from bacteria and viruses that gain entrance into the body by various means. The first milk of the ewe, called colostrum, contains antibodies necessary for lamb survival. Colostrum antibodies against some diseases, such as the clostridial diseases, can be increased by vaccinating the ewe a month before lambing. The antibodies consumed by the lamb pass from the intestines into the blood stream. However, a gradual closure of the intestine to the passage of antibodies occurs and is completed by approximately 12 hours after birth. Therefore, it is extremely important for the lamb to get colostrum as soon after birth as possible. Colostrum also contains concentrated levels of energy, protein, vitamins, and other nutrients needed by the lamb. To ensure survival, the lamb should consume an amount of colostrum equal to five percent of its body weight. For example, a 10-pound (160 oz.) lamb should receive eight ounces of colostrum within the first few hours after birth, four ounces immediately, and an additional four ounces within the next 12 hours. It is easier, quicker, and more effective to use a stomach tube rather than a bottle to feed colostrum to a weak lamb.”

Although it is possible to use cow or goat colostrum as a substitute for ewe colostrum, shepherds should carefully weigh the risks of doing so. Colostrum from outside sources, including other sheep flocks, can bring unwanted disease causing bacteria and viruses to the farm. Some examples include Johne’s disease and salmonella, and very recent research has suggested that scrapie may be transmitted by milk or colostrum.1,2

The above quotations are from pages 423, 424, and 426 of the SID Sheep Production Handbook, 2002 Edition, volume 7, published by the American Sheep Industry Association, 9785 Maroon Circle, Suite 360, Centennial, CO 80112. Phone: (303) 771-3500. (Email: info@sheepusa.org)

1. Lacroux C et al. Prions in milk from ewes incubating natural scrapie. PLoS Pathog. 2008 Dec;4(12):e1000238. Epub 2008 Dec 12.

2. Konold T et al. Evidence of scrapie transmission via milk. BMC Vet Res. 2008 Apr 8;4:14.

There are many factors that affect lamb survival. Serious shepherds should consult the Sheep Production Handbook, produced by the American Sheep Industry Association (www.sheepusa.org), for a more complete discussion of the various conditions and infectious diseases which impact lamb survival. However, if a pregnancy is carried to term, most losses occur in the first 3-4 days of life, and if lambs survive the first 4 weeks, most usually make it to market. Most losses can be grouped in 3 general categories – starvation/hypothermia, pneumonia, and scours (diarrhea). To a large degree, these losses are related to management factors we control, and therefore, a proportion of this loss is preventable.

Most small ruminant species are very hardy and have adapted well to their environment and available nutritional support. If one examines which mammals are found in the harshest of the world’s environments, you will find that small ruminants predominate over bovines and other large mammals. If left to themselves, many small ruminant species will deliver their young in the spring, or early summer, when the weather turns milder and forages are most nutritious and abundant. In wild small ruminant species, selection pressure eliminates extremes in birth weights and favors mothers with optimal characteristics in ease of birth, mothering ability, balanced milk production, and ability to thrive with available nutritional resources.

One only has to look as far as the white-tailed deer in Ohio to see these pressures at work. Data collected by the Ohio Division of Wildlife from 1997-1999 (published in 2004) indicate that greater than 90% of mature does will give birth to an average of about 1.86 fawns in May and June. (Tonkovich et al, 2004) Somewhere between 6% and 10% of mature does will have three or more fawns. Between 30% and 60% of those female fawns (depending on the region of Ohio) will conceive in the following fall when their live weight is about 85 pounds. They will give birth to about 1.21 fawns when they are themselves only one year old. These recent figures are actually somewhat lower than previous research conducted in 1981-82 and may reflect declining habitat quality (read nutrition) in some parts of the state where deer numbers have increased substantially since the early 1980s. Each fall we harvest over 30% of these animals during the hunting seasons (over 230,000 in 2007/2008), and car accidents account for many more. (http://dispatch.com/live/content/local_news/stories/2008/02/07/2008-09_deer_regs.ART_ART_02-07-08_B1_GT99IS2.html?sid=101) Except for the agricultural crops they use, deer provide Ohioans with considerable red meat production with no help from us, largely as a result of our relatively fertile soils and favorable climate.

The starvation/hypothermia complex is the leading cause of death in the Great Lakes region. This is a largely a function of the time of year when lambs are born. However, vigorous lambs that receive adequate colostrum and milk (5-10% of body weight) in the first few hours after birth can withstand a significant amount of cold. Some literature from other parts of the world refers to this problem as SME – starvation, mismothering, and exposure. This terminology emphasizes the ewe’s contribution to the problem. Research, and practical experience, indicates that selection for ewes with sound udders, desirable teat placement, and strong mothering instincts can significantly reduce the impact of this problem. Likewise, large birth weights and dystocia, also conditions we can select against, contribute to less vigorous lambs that don’t find the ewe’s udder without assistance. Because lambs have small body weight in relation to their surface area, hypothermia will always be a potential cause of loss, even in lambs born in mild or warm weather. However, we can reduce its impact in our flocks by altering our selection and management practices.

Pneumonia is the second leading cause of death in young lambs. Death is most often caused by bacterial infections, usually Mannheimia (Pasteurella) hemolytica and Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae. These bacteria are common in sheep flocks, and the problem strains usually can be found in the nasal passages and tonsils of adult, and often healthy appearing, ewes. Transmission to the lamb is usually by aerosolized droplets, containing the bacteria, originating from carrier ewes. This transmission is favored by inadequate exchange of air and moisture as is often seen in our barns. Poor ventilation, combined with a significant proportion of the ewe flock with chronic infection of the respiratory tract, generally results in pneumonia being a significant cause of mortality in young lambs. The same situation occurs in cattle and some other species. Producers should consider culling ewes with a chronic cough.

Increasing the rate of air exchange will, of course, tend to make the barn colder in winter and could increase the risk of hypothermia in lambs. However, starvation/hypothermia problems can be minimized with appropriate selection and management. Pneumonia not only causes significant mortality in young lambs, but also leads to chronic infections in older lambs and ewes. Pneumonia is a leading cause of death and reduced performance in feedlot age lambs. Many infections in these lambs are already established in the respiratory passages, long before lambs reach the feedlot, and only need the stresses of transportation and the feeding program to result in clinical disease. Refinements in building design and reduced animal density in confinement situations are more effective long-term measures to control pneumonia than antibiotic usage. Experience suggests that flocks which lamb outdoors in the spring tend to have a low incidence of lamb pneumonia.

Diarrhea in young lambs is caused by several kinds of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Lambs that do not receive adequate colostrum are at greatest risk of developing diarrhea. However, even animals that received adequate amounts may still develop diarrhea if the colostrum did not contain specific antibodies to these agents. In addition, colostral antibody can be overcome by a severe buildup of infectious agents in the environment. Lambs with diarrhea may shed hundreds of millions of infectious organisms in every teaspoonful of manure. For many infectious organisms, ingestion of only a few is necessary to cause disease. For example, fewer than 10 Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts are needed to cause a productive infection. As if all this weren’t bad enough, some ewes act as inapparent carriers of these infectious agents and seed the environment with low numbers. One might ask why most lambs don’t get sick.

Healthy vigorous lambs, with adequate colostrum, and in a relatively clean, well-ventilated environment, may withstand exposure to low levels of many infectious agents and not get sick. In fact, this is a necessary process in order to insure that their immune system responds to these low level challenges and develops resistance (protection). This exposure process eventually results in replacement animals that successfully make and pass protective antibodies to their own lambs. This is a dynamic situation. It is when things get out of balance that clinical disease becomes evident.

Overcrowding, excessive moisture or humidity, lack of bedding, and poor sanitation all contribute to raising the overall level of contamination by infectious agents to levels that result in disease. Infectious agents in the environment are not only acquired by the lamb nosing about the pens, but also by nursing udders which are contaminated by dirty environments. In addition, once a scours outbreak is in progress, much of the environment rapidly becomes contaminated, and many lambs get exposed. Isolating ewe/lamb pairs when diarrhea occurs in the lamb can help reduce the number of cases that develop. Likewise, good overall sanitation with dry, relatively deep bedding can reduce the amount of exposure lambs get to disease-causing organisms.

Most flocks harbor many of the common infectious agents responsible for the bulk of lamb losses caused by infectious disease. These agents are either in the environment or harbored by the animals themselves. Whether or not clinical disease occurs is usually a function of the interactions between animals with their environment. Our role in minimizing management factors that contribute to disease development is crucial to the health status of our flocks.

Reference

Tonkovich et al. Trends in Reproductive Performance and Condition of White-tailed Deer

in Ohio. Ohio Journal of Science 104 (5):112-122, 2004.